Connections to the Indian Primer

Alexis Jakubowski

Missionary as Hero

The Indian Primer or the way of training up our Indian Youth in the good knowledge of God was written by John Eliot in 1669. John Eliot was a Puritan missionary from England who had a goal of converting Native Americans to Christianity. It was through this book that Eliot was able to translate and explain the idea of Christianity to the Native Americans. Although Eliot’s deed in trying to convert the Indians may have some positive aspects to it, his actions have also been seen as forced and unwanted to some. Through this essay, I would like to compare Eliot’s actions to those of Frank Cushing. Both were ‘praised’ as heroes in helping the Native Americans, but at a closer glance one realizes this help was not always seen in a positive light to the Indians receiving it. First, I will look at Frank Cushing, an anthropologist who invaded the Zuni homeland in hopes of understanding and documenting their culture. I will then compare how John Eliot was able to invade Native American culture in similar ways through his conversions. I will look focus on the ways in which both men were able to invade even when they were not wanted.

In class, we have been reading the novel Skull Wars by author David Hurst Thomas, in which topics of Native American archaeology is discussed. Chapter eight is titled “The Anthropologist as Hero”. This title is referring to Frank Cushing as the so-called ‘Hero’, but once reading the chapter, it is evident that this title can be seen in a sarcastic tone. In 1879, Frank Cushing, a young and eager American anthropologist at the time, moved into an Indian pueblo in the Zuni community in order to fully immerse himself in the culture (72). He was hired by John Powell, a leader of the Bureau of American Ethnology, in an effort ‘to record the cultural, linguistic, and physical nuances of the Vanishing American”, including the Native Americans (73). It is important to note that Cushing moved into the Zuni community uninvited- in fact “the residents of Zuni Pueblo showed little interest in being studied” (73). Upon arriving to the Zuni community, Cushing decided he wanted to fully submerge himself in the peoples’ culture. He ate their food, wore their clothes, learned their language, and even pierced his ears as a form of initiation (74). Although his relationship with the Zuni people seemed to become more comfortable, signs of it being forced were evident. He forced himself into “secret meetings and initiations”, and when asked to leave, pretended like he did not understand what they were saying to him. (74). It is written that they just “gradually came to accept his presence”.

Although Cushing did some seemingly helpful things for the Zuni- such as conversing with traders, negotiating with government and school officials, helping them overcome a famine, and protecting them from nearby tribes such as the Navajos (75). These are definitely some impressive feats that he was able to accomplish for the Zuni- but, there was also a sense of “mastery” over the Zuni that caused issues within the tribe (75). Cushing was able to gain the trust of the Zunis and then eventually destroyed this trust. He infringed local taboos, published sacred stories and legends without permission, and recreating an important Mudhead mask that was sacred to them (76). This cycle of winning trust and then betraying it was a common one among anthropologists of this time period. Also, most of Cushing’s recordings were done under his mindset, which left many to wonder “how much of his interpretation reflects his own rather than his native hosts’ mentality” (76). Thus, it is evident that Cushing as a ‘hero’ may be the title he gave for himself and not one that he earned through the Zuni’s eyes.

John Eliot, as pointed out earlier, is a comparable character to Frank Cushing. Although Eliot was not an anthropologist, he was a missionary who viewed himself as doing a ‘favor’ to the Indians. He sees the Indians as ‘pitiful’ because they have not been shown the light of God yet (v). The Indian Primer’s introduction recounts the actions Eliot took to convert the Indians, but only in a praiseworthy notion. It never once views his action in the eyes of those most affected- the Native Americans. Eliot is glorified in this book for teaching them the divine word of God, while also teaching them survival tips (vi). He boasts of how he did all of this still while partaking in the Indians’ “hard fare”, and was exposed to the “attacks of the beasts of the forests, and to the spears and arrows of the Indians” (vi).

While Eliot does work very hard to help spread the word of Christianity, and some did willingly convert, he also imposes himself on Native American culture as Cushing did. Now, don’t get me wrong, his teachings were very important to some, but were also seen as unwelcomed to some. He was able to learn the Mohican dialect and translated the Ten Commandments, The Lord’s Prayer, and many other parts from Scripture (xxxix). After learning the language, he was able to preach to the Indians and answer their questions about God (xii). Some Indians decided to convert to Christianity because of him, and Eliot gave them the title “praying Indians” (xii). Many Indian chiefs greatly opposed these teachings of God and banished, or even killed, those who became known as “praying Indians” (xii). By imposing Christianity, Eliot created a tension between the Indian people. Many were jealous of the authority and attention that converts gained from Eliot, and it created a divide in the community. Yet still, Eliot applauds himself for doing the difficult work of trying to convert the Indians, even if he is doing harm to their community. He is seen as a hero for doing all of this, and he boasts how he barely took any gratuity from them, even though this wasn’t seen as a favor to all (xiii). The Indian Primer is biased; it only looks at the positive effects Eliot has on the Indians. Although yes, he does help introduce a globalized religion to this community, it is important that the opposition he faces from the natives of the community is not focused on much.

In a way, the Indian Primer could also be titled “Missionary as Hero”, similar to the chapter “Anthropologist as Hero” in Skull Wars. These titles are a bit sarcastic and ironic, as both Cushing and Eliot impose on Native American culture in different ways. Although they do bring some positive effects to the Indian community, it becomes a question of whether the negative forces of outweigh the good ones.

Works Cited

Eliot, John, and John Small. The Indian Primer; Or, The Way of Training up of Our Indian Youth in the Good Knowledge of God. Edinburgh: A. Elliot, 1880. Print.

Thomas, David Hurst. Skull Wars. New York, NY: Basic, 2000. Print.